The distribution and biogeochemical importance of high-latitude dust in the Arctic and Southern Ocean-Antarctic regions

Recent studies suggest that around 5% of global dust emissions come from sources in the highlatitudes (≥50°N and ≥40°S). A substantial proportion of this dust remains within the high latitudes and is deposited in marine and terrestrial environments. Stable air masses and limited atmospheric convection associated with cold climates reduce vertical mixing of dust plumes and can restrict the altitudes at which the deposition of dust originating from high latitudes can take place. Within local high-latitude systems, dust transport pathways facilitate links between different landscape components contributing nutrients and sediments. Dust deposition to the polar areas may also be a critical source of sediments and nutrients that trigger and maintain phytoplankton blooms

Bridging the gap between field data and global models: current strategies in aeolian research

Modern global models of earth-atmosphere-ocean processes are becoming increasingly sophisticated but still require validation against empirical data and observations. This commentary reports on international initiatives amongst aeolian researchers that seek to combine fi eld-based data sets and geomorphological frameworks for improving the quality of data available to constrain and validate global models. These include a second iteration of the Dust Indicators and Records from Terrestrial Marine Palaeoenvironments (DIRTMAP2) database, the Digital Atlas of Sand Seas and Dunefi elds of the World and a new geomorphologybased land surface map produced by the QUEST (Quantifying Uncertainties in the Earth System) Working Group on Dust

Seasonal and decadal variability of dust observations in the Kangerlussuaq area, West Greenland

Dust emissions from high-latitude, cold climate environments have started receiving more attention in the past decade. This is because emission frequency and magnitudes are expected to increase with rising global temperatures leading to a reduction in terrestrial ice masses and increases in suitable sediment for the aeolian system. Of the identified high-latitude dust source regions, Greenland has received relatively little attention. Using World Meteorological Organization (WMO) dust code analysis, this study presents a 70-year record of dust events and preferential dust transport pathways from Kangerlussuaq, west Greenland. A clear seasonal pattern of dust emissions shows increases in dust events in spring and autumn driven by effective winds and sediment supply. The decadal record suggests an increase in the magnitude, but not frequency, of dust events since the early 1990s. Pathways analysis suggests that dust is preferentially transported away from the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) towards the Davis Strait and Labrador Sea. When dust is transported towards the GrIS, it is more likely to be deposited in the ice-marginal ablation zone than on the higher altitude areas of the ice sheet. The impact of dust deposition on terrestrial, cryospheric and aquatic environments is also discussed

A 150-year record of coastline dynamics within a sediment cell: Eastern England

Coastal sediment cells reflect processes operating at a range of scales, but it is the medium spatial and temporal scales (decades to centuries) that are of greatest interest for coastal management. This paper focuses on coastline position change within a single sediment cell over 150 years where the geomorphology includes cliffs, beaches and saltmarshes. The focus is the east coast of England from Flamborough Head to Gibraltar Point. Although the updrift sector of this sediment cell has been studied for well over a century, the downdrift sector has attracted significantly less attention. Using topographic profiles, bathymetric profiles, aerial photographs and historical maps we mapped coastline erosion and accretion using the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) and calculated volumetric changes for different morphometric units. Rapid erosion of the updrift Holderness cliffs has been counterbalanced with accretion on beaches along the downdrift Lincolnshire coast. The amount of accretion in Lincolnshire corresponds to around 29% of the volume of sediment eroded from Holderness. Much of the eroded cliff material is likely to be deposited temporarily into nearshore and offshore sand banks before being redistributed by cross-shore currents. An exploration of storm surge impact on long-term erosion and accretion rates showed no clear relationship between storm surge frequency and change in coastline position, however this may be in part due to the relative timing of storm occurrence and data acquisition. The Jenkinson daily weather type classification was found to be a reasonable proxy for the occurrence of strong onshore winds which may offer scope for further investigation of the role of forcing factors over time periods beyond the length of the meteorological and tidal station records. Winter North Atlantic Oscillation phase was not a good indicator of storminess on the east coast of England but may be a useful proxy for quiescence

Dust generation on a proglacial floodplain, West Greenland

The interplay of glacial dynamics, glaciofluvial and aeolian transport in proglacial landscapes plays an important role in local environmental systems and in the global context by affecting the amount of dust generated and transported at different phases of glacial-interglacial cycles. Glacial outwash plains are a significant source of dust, however the processes involved in dust generation on proglacial floodplains are poorly documented. We report a study of the quantity and characteristics of aeolian suspended sediment transport in Sandflugtdalen, a valley containing a proglacial floodplain and aeolian dunefield in West Greenland. Although the surface sediment of both the floodplain and dunefield contain a considerable amount of sand-sized material, wind speeds recorded were insufficiently strong to mobilise this material; this is probably due to the armouring effect of coarser particles in the surface deposits. Nevertheless, fine (dust-sized) aeolian sediments were transported down valley in suspension and the source of this material was a silt-dominated meltwater deposit up valley from the monitoring sites. Dust transport ranged from 0.0008-0.082 g m-w s-1 over seven days and 0.0035-0.011 g m-w s-1 over a further 57 days during which no additional fluvial sediments were deposited. The reduction in sediment transport rate is attributed to both a depleted sediment supply and a decrease in above threshold winds. The supply of fine sediments to this proglacial region is dependent on meltwater suspended sediment loads which are predicted to increase during glacier retreat; reworking of the floodplain during ice retreat may also make more material available for aeolian transport

The dynamic effects of sediment availability on the relationship between wind speed and dust concentration

Where sediment supply is unlimited, previous research suggests that a strong, positive relationship between wind speed and dust concentration exists at the event‐scale. This relationship can break down if sediment availability is limited or changes during an event. This paper explores the dynamic effects of sediment availability on the relationship between wind speed and dust concentration using data from 9 high‐latitude dust events recorded in Iceland. Of these events, 6 showed a strong positive relationship between wind speed and dust concentration. For the remainder, the relationship breaks down periodically during the event due to changing surface moisture conditions and atmospheric humidity. Results suggest a need to understand how spatial and temporal changes in humidity, surface soil moisture, soil texture and threshold velocity interact and control sediment availability for dust emissions in all environments, including at high latitudes

Dust source identification using MODIS: a comparison of techniques applied to the Lake Eyre Basin, Australia

The impact of mineral aerosol (dust) in the Earth's system depends on particle characteristics which are initially determined by the terrestrial sources from which the sediments are entrained. Remote sensing is an established method for the detection and mapping of dust events, and has recently been used to identify dust source locations with varying degrees of success. This paper compares and evaluates five principal methods, using MODIS Level 1B and MODIS Level 2 aerosol data, to: (a) differentiate dust (mineral aerosol) from non-dust, and (2) determine the extent to which they enable the source of the dust to be discerned. The five MODIS L1B methods used here are: (1) un-processed false colour composite (FCC), (2) brightness temperature difference, (3) Ackerman's (1997: J.Geophys. Res., 102, 17069–17080) procedure, (4) Miller's (2003:Geophys. Res. Lett. 30, 20, art.no.2071) dust enhancement algorithm and (5) Roskovensky and Liou's (2005: Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L12809) dust differentiation algorithm; the aerosol product is MODIS Deep Blue (Hsu et al., 2004: IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sensing, 42, 557–569), which is optimised for use over bright surfaces (i.e. deserts). These are applied to four significant dust events from the Lake Eyre Basin, Australia. OMI AI was also examined for each event to provide an independent assessment of dust presence and plume location. All of the techniques were successful in detecting dust when compared to FCCs, but the most effective technique for source determination varied from event to event depending on factors such as cloud cover, dust plume mineralogy and surface reflectance. Significantly, to optimise dust detection using the MODIS L1B approaches, the recommended dust/non-dust thresholds had to be considerably adjusted on an event by event basis. MODIS L2 aerosol data retrievals were also found to vary in quality significantly between events; being affected in particular by cloud masking difficulties. In general, we find that OMI AI and MODIS AQUA L1B and L2 data are complementary; the former are ideal for initial dust detection, the latter can be used to both identify plumes and sources at high spatial resolution. Overall, approaches using brightness temperature difference (BT10–11) are the most consistently reliable technique for dust source identification in the Lake Eyre Basin. One reason for this is that this enclosed basin contains multiple dust sources with contrasting geochemical signatures. In this instance, BTD data are not affected significantly by perturbations in dust mineralogy. However, the other algorithms tested (including MODIS Deep Blue) were all influenced by ground surface reflectance or dust mineralogy; making it impossible to use one single MODIS L1B or L2 data type for all events (or even for a single multiple-plume event). There is, however, considerable potential to exploit this anomaly, and to use dust detection algorithms to obtain information about dust mineralogy

Do MODIS-defined dust sources have a geomorphological signature?

The preferential dust source (PDS) scheme enables large-scale mapping of geomorphology in terms of importance for dust emissions but has not been independently tested other than at local scales. We examine the PDS qualitative conceptual model of surface emissivity alongside a quantitative measurement of dust loading from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Deep Blue Collection 6 for the Chihuahuan Desert. The predicted ranked importance of each geomorphic type for dust emissions is compared with the actual ranked importance as determined from the satellite-derived dust loading. For this region, the predicted variability and magnitude of dust emissions from most surface types present coincides with the observed characteristics demonstrating the significance of geomorphological controls on emission. The exception is for areas of low magnitude but persistent emissions such as alluvial surfaces where PDS overpredicts dustiness. As PDS is a good predictor of emissions and incorporates surface dynamics it could improve models of future dust emissions

Pathways of high-latitude dust in the North Atlantic

The contribution of mineral dust from high-latitude sources has remained an under-examined feature of the global dust cycle. Dust events originating at high latitudes can provide inputs of aeolian sediment to regions lying well outside the subtropical dust belt. Constraining the seasonal variability and preferential pathways of dust from high-latitude sources is important for understanding the potential impacts that the dust may have on wider environmental systems, such as nearby marine or cryospheric domains. This study quantifies dust pathways from two areas exhibiting different emission dynamics in the north and south of Iceland, which is a prominent Northern Hemisphere dust source. The analysis uses air parcel trajectory modelling, and for the first time for high-latitude sources, explicitly links all trajectory simulations to time-specific (meteorological) observations of suspended dust. This approach maximises the potential for trajectories to represent dust, and illustrates that trajectory climatologies not limited to dust can grossly overestimate the potential for dust transport. Preferential pathways emerge that demonstrate the role of Iceland in supplying dust to the Northern Atlantic and sub-Arctic oceans. For dust emitted from northern sources, a dominant route exists to the northeast, into the Norwegian, Greenland and Barents Seas, although there is also potential for delivery to the North Atlantic in summer months. From the southern sources, the primary pathway extends into the North Atlantic, with a high density of trajectories extending as far south as 50ºN, particularly in spring and summer. Common to both southern and northern sources is a pathway to the west-southwest of Iceland into the Denmark Strait and towards Greenland. For trajectories simulated at ≤500 m, the vertical development of dust plumes from Iceland is limited, likely due to the stable air masses of the region suppressing the potential for vertical motion. Trajectories rarely ascend high enough to reach the central portions of the Greenland Ice Sheet. The overall distribution of trajectories suggests that contributions of Icelandic dust are relatively more important for neighbouring marine environments than the cryosphere

Sub-basin scale dust source geomorphology detected using MODIS

The spatial and temporal variability of dust emissions from different surfaces in the Lake Eyre Basin, Australia is determined using MODIS data. For 2003–6 the sources of 529 dust plumes were classified: overall 37% of plumes originated in areas of aeolian deposits, 30% from alluvial deposits and floodplains and 29% from ephemeral lakes or playas. At this sub-basin scale, the relative importance of different dust source geomorphologies varied primarily in response to sediment supply and availability and was not related to aeolian transport capacity, suggesting the Lake Eyre Basin is a supply-limited system